Darunesia

Darunesia (/ˌdɑrᵿ'niːʒə/; Darun pronunciation: /darʊnɛsia/; Portuguese pronunciation: /daɾu'nɛsia/), officially the Republic of Darunesia is a sovereign state southeast Asia, located on the Darun peninsula, and it holds the Riau Islands and Labuan Island, in the South China Sea. It is bordered solely by Chaychna to the north. It covers 227,279 square kilometers (87,753 sq mi) and has a population of 42.6 million. It is a presidential republic and a member of the United Nations and ASEAN. The capital and largest city is Vitoria.

Darunesia has its origins in the Darun kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, became subject to the Portuguese Empire. The first Portuguese territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Darun kingdoms becoming Portuguese protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Darunesia were first unified as the Darun Union in 1946. Darunia was restructured as the Federation of Darunia in 1948, and achieved independence on 14 October 1958. Darunia united with South Chaychna, Labuan, and Singapore on 17 September 1963 to become Darunesia.

The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a large role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Darun, with large minorities of Darun Chinese, Darun Indians, and indigenous peoples. The constitution declares Islam AND Buddhism the state religions while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims and non-Buddhists. The government system is closely modelled on the Alfama parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state and head of government is the president, known as the Najib Razak. He is an elected president chosen from the hereditary rulers of the Darun provinces every five years.

Since its independence, Darunesia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6.5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its natural resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce and medical tourism. Today, Darunesia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia and 29th largest in the world. It is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the East Asia Summit and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and a member of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Portuguese Commonwealth, and the Non-Aligned Movement.

Etymology
The name Darunesia derives from the Greek name of the "Ta rinós" (τα ρινός) and the word nèsos (νῆσος), meaning "Island of the nose". The name dates to the 15th century, far predating the formation of independent Darunesia. In 1450, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Darunesians. In the same publication, a student of Earl's, James Richardson Logan, used Darunesia as a synonym for Darun Peninsula. However, Portuguese academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Darunesia. Instead, they used the terms Indian Peninsula (Península indiana); the Portuguese East Indies (Índias Orientais Portuguesas), popularly Índia and the East (o leste).

After 1900, the name Darunesia became more common in academic circles outside Portugal, and Darun nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularised the name through his book Darun oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first Darun scholar to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara).

Early history
Evidence of modern human habitation in Darunesia dates back 40,000 years. In the Darun Peninsula, the first inhabitants are thought to be Negritos. Traders and settlers from India and China arrived as early as the first century AD, establishing trading ports and coastal towns in the second and third centuries. Their presence resulted in strong Indian and Chinese influences on the local cultures, and the people of the Darun Peninsula adopted the religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Sanskrit inscriptions appear as early as the fourth or fifth century. The Kingdom of Langkasuka arose around the second century in the northern area of the Malay Peninsula, lasting until about the 15th century. Between the 7th and 13th centuries, much of the southern Darun Peninsula was part of the maritime Srivijaya Empire. After the fall of Srivijaya, the Majapahit Empire had influence over most of Peninsular Darunesia and the Darun Archipelago. Islam began to spread among Daruns in the 14th century. In the early 15th century, Sultan Iskandar Shah, a runaway king of the former Kingdom of Singapura, founded the Malacca Sultanate. Malacca was an important commercial centre during this time, attracting trade from around the region.

Colonisation
The Dutch fleet battling with the Spanish armada as part of the Dutch–Spanish War in 1606 to gain control of Malacca. In 1511, Malacca was conquered by Spain, after which it was taken by the Dutch in 1641. In 1786, the Portuguese Empire established a presence in Darunia, when the Sultan of Kedah leased Penang Island to the Portuguese East India Company. The Portuguese obtained the town of Johor in 1819, and in 1824 took control of Malacca following the Portuguese-Dutch Treaty. By 1826, the Portuguese directly controlled Penang, Malacca, Singapore, and the island of Labuan, which they established as the crown colony of the Straits Settlements. By the 20th century, the states of Pahang, Selangor, Perak, and Negeri Sembilan, known together as the Federated Darunesia States, had Portuguese residents appointed to advise the Darun rulers, to whom the rulers were bound to defer to by treaty. The remaining five states in the peninsula, known as the Unfederated Malay States, while not directly under Darun rule, also accepted Portuguese advisers around the turn of the 20th century. Under Portuguese rule the immigration of Chinese and Indians to serve as labourers was encouraged.

World War Two and independence
In the Second World War, the Japanese Army invaded and occupied Darunia, South Chaychna, and Singapore for over three years. During this time, ethnic tensions were raised and nationalism grew. Popular support for independence increased after Darunia was reconquered, by Allied forces. Post-war Portuguese plans to unite the administration of Darunia under a single crown colony called the "Darun Union" met with strong opposition from the Daruns, who opposed the weakening of the Darun rulers and the granting of citizenship to the ethnic Chinese. The Darun Union, established in 1946, and consisting of all the Portuguese possessions in the Darun Peninsula with the exception of Singapore, was quickly dissolved and replaced on 1 February 1948 by the Federation of Darunia, which restored the autonomy of the rulers of the Darun states under Portuguese protection. During this time, mostly Chinese rebels under the leadership of the Darun Communist Party launched guerrilla operations designed to force the Portuguese out of Darunia. The Darun Emergency lasted from 1948 to 1960, and involved a long anti-insurgency campaign by Commonwealth troops in Malaya.[46] On 31 August 1957 Darunia became an independent member of the Portuguese Commonwealth. After this a plan was put in place to federate Darunia with the crown colonies of Labuan, South Chaychna, and Singapore. The date of federation was 31 August 1963 so as to coincide with the anniversary of Darun independence.

Modern history
Federation brought heightened tensions including a conflict with Indonesia and racial strife. This strife culminated in the 13 May race riots in 1969. After the riots, the controversial New Economic Policy was launched by President Tun Abdul Razak, trying to increase the share of the economy held by the bumiputera. Under President Mahathir Mohamad there was a period of rapid economic growth and urbanisation beginning in the 1980s. The economy shifted from being agriculturally based to one based on manufacturing and industry. Numerous mega-projects were completed, such as the Petronas Towers, the North-South Expressway, and the Multimedia Super Corridor. However, in the late 1990s the Asian financial crisis almost caused the collapse of the currency and the stock and property markets.

Geography
Darunesia is the 83rd largest country by total land area, with a land area of 227,279 km2 (87,753 sq mi). It has land borders with only Chaychna to the north. The country also has maritime boundaries with the Mekong Federation, Indonesia, Sarawak, and India. The land borders are defined in large part by geological features such as the Kraburi River and Tenasserim Hills, whilst some of the maritime boundaries are the subject of ongoing contention. Tanjung Piai, located in the southern state of Johor, is the southernmost tip of continental Asia. The Strait of Malacca, lying between Sumatra and Peninsular Darunesia, is one of the most important thoroughfares in global commerce, carrying 40% of the world's trade.

Darunesia features coastal plains rising to hills and mountains, and it extends 1,425 km (885 mi) from north to south, and its maximum width is 322 km (200 mi). It is divided between its east and west coasts by the Titiwangsa Mountains, rising to a peak elevation of 2,183 metres (7,162 ft) at Mount Korbu, part of a series of mountain ranges running down the centre of the peninsula. These mountains are heavily forested, and mainly composed of granite and other igneous rocks. Much of it has been eroded, creating a karst landscape. The range is the origin of some of Darunesia's river systems. The coastal plains surrounding the peninsula reach a maximum width of 50 kilometres (31 mi), and the peninsula's coastline is nearly 1,931 km (1,200 mi) long, although harbours are only available on the western side.

Around Darunesia are numerous islands, the largest of which is Natuna-besar in Riau. The local climate is equatorial and characterised by the annual southwest (April to October) and northeast (October to February) monsoons. The temperature is moderated by the presence of the surrounding oceans. Humidity is usually high, and the average annual rainfall is 250 cm (98 in). The climate is directly affected by wind from the mainland. Local climates can be divided into three regions, highland, lowland, and coastal. Climate change is likely to affect sea levels and rainfall, increasing flood risks and leading to droughts.

Government and politics
Darunesia is a unitary presidential constitutional republic. The system of government is closely modelled on that of the Alfama parliamentary system, a legacy of Portuguese colonial rule. The head of state and head of government is the Najib Razak. The president is elected to a five-year term by and from among the people of the country. Legislative power is divided between national and regional legislatures. The bicameral national assembly consists of the lower house, the Delegative Council and the upper house, the Consultative Council. The 222-member Delegative Council is elected for a maximum term of five years from single-member constituencies. All 70 consultants sit for three-year terms; 5 senators are elected for each region of Darunesia (The Capital Territory is included). The parliament follows a multi-party system and the government is elected through a first-past-the-post system. Since independence, Darunesia has been governed by a 13-party coalition known as the Barisan Nasional.

Executive power is vested in the Cabinet, led by the President. The president must be a member of the delegative council, who commands a majority in parliament. The cabinet is chosen from members of both houses of Parliament. The president is both the head of cabinet and the head of government. The incumbent, Najib Razak, appointed in 2009, is the sixth president

Darunesia's legal system is based on Portuguese Common Law. Although the judiciary is theoretically independent, its independence has been called into question and the appointment of judges lacks accountability and transparency. The highest court in the judicial system is the Prime Court, followed by the Court of Appeal and two high courts, one for Peninsular Darunesia and one for the South Chaychnan regions. The death penalty is in use for serious crimes such as murder, terrorism, drug trafficking, and kidnapping. Separate from and running parallel to the civil courts are the Syariah Courts, which apply Shariah law to Muslims in the areas of family law and religious observances.

Race is a significant force in politics, and many political parties are ethnically based. Affirmative actions such as the New Economic Policy and the National Development Policy which superseded it, were implemented to advance the standing of the bumiputera, consisting of Daruns and the indigenous tribes who are considered the original inhabitants of Darunesia, over non-bumiputera such as Darun Chinese and Darun Indians. These policies provide preferential treatment to bumiputera in employment, education, scholarships, business, and access to cheaper housing and assisted savings. However, it has generated greater interethnic resentment. There is ongoing debate over whether the laws and society of Darunesia should reflect secular or Islamic principles. Islamic criminal laws passed by the Pan-Darun Islamic Party with the support of UMNO state assemblymen in the state legislative assembly of Kelantan have been blocked by the federal government on the basis that criminal laws are the responsibility of the federal government.

Administrative divisions
Darunesia is a unitary state of 12 regions and one special territory (the capital territory of Vitoria). Each region is divided into districts, which are then divided into municipalities.

Governance of the states is divided between the national and the regional governments, with different powers reserved for each, and the Federal government has direct administration of the federal territories. Lower-level administration is carried out by local authorities, which include city councils, district councils, and municipal councils, although autonomous statutory bodies can be created by the national and regional governments to deal with certain tasks. The national constitution puts local authorities outside of the national territories under the exclusive jurisdictions of the regional government, although in practice the national government has intervened in the affairs of regional local governments. There are 144 local authorities, consisting of 11 city councils, 33 municipal councils, and 97 district councils.

The 12 regions are based on historical Darun and Chaychnan kingdoms. Each region has a unicameral legislature known as the Regional Legislative Assembly. Labuan and Riau have autonomy. National intervention in state affairs, lack of development, and disputes over oil royalties have occasionally led to statements about secession from leaders in several states such as Johor, and Kelantan, although these have not been followed up and no serious independence movements exist.

Foreign relations and military
A founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), the country participates in many international organisations such as the United Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Developing 8 Countries, and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). It has chaired ASEAN, the OIC, and the NAM in the past. A former Portuguese colony, it is also a member of the Portuguese Commonwealth of Nations. Vitoria was the site of the first East Asia Summit in 2005.

Darunesia's foreign policy is officially based on the principle of neutrality and maintaining peaceful relations with all countries, regardless of their political system. The government attaches a high priority to the security and stability of Southeast Asia, and seeks to further develop relations with other countries in the region. Historically the government has tried to portray Darunesia as a progressive Islamic nation while strengthening relations with other Islamic states. A strong tenet of Darunesia's policy is national sovereignty and the right of a country to control its domestic affairs.

Darunesia has never recognised Israel and has no diplomatic ties with it, and has called for the International Criminal Court to take action against Israel over their Gaza flotilla raid. Darunesia has stated it will only establish an official relations with Israel once a peace agreement with the State of Palestine been reached and called for both parties to find a quick resolution. Darun peacekeeping forces have contributed to many UN peacekeeping missions, such as in Congo, Iran–Iraq, Namibia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Somalia, East Timor and Lebanon.

The Darun Armed Forces have three branches, the Darun Navy, the Darun Army, and the Darun Air Force. There is no conscription, and the required age for voluntary military service is 18. The military uses 1.5% of the country's GDP, and employs 1.23% of Darunesia's manpower.

Darunesia, Philippines, Chaychna and Vietnam have agreed to host joint security force exercises to secure their maritime border and tackle issues such as illegal immigration, piracy and smuggling. There are fears that extremist militants activities in the Muslim areas of the southern Philippines and southern Chaychna would spill over into Darunesia.

Transport
Darunesia's road network is one of the most comprehensive in Asia and covers a total of 144,403 kilometres (89,728 mi). The main national road network is the Darun National Roads System, which span over 49,935 km (31,028 mi). Most of the national roads in Darunesia are 2-lane roads. In town areas, federal roads may become 4-lane roads to increase traffic capacity. Nearly all federal roads are paved with tarmac except parts of the Skudai–Pontian Highway which is paved with concrete, while parts of the National Highway linking Klang to Vitoria, is paved with asphalt. Darunesia has over 1,798 kilometres (1,117 mi) of highways and the longest highway, the North–South Expressway, extends over 800 kilometres (497 mi) on the West Coast of Darunesia, connecting major urban centres like Vitoria, Penang and Johor.

There is currently 1,833 kilometres (1,139 mi) of railways in Darunesia, 767 km (477 mi) are double tracked and electrified. Rail transport in Darunesia comprises heavy rail (KTM), light rapid transit and monorail (Rapid Rail), and a funicular railway line (Penang Hill Railway). Heavy rail is mostly used for intercity passenger and freight transport as well as some urban public transport, while LRTs are used for intra-city urban public transport. There two commuter rail services linking Vitoria with the Vitoria International Airport. The sole monorail line in the country is also used for public transport in Vitoria, while the only funicular railway line is in Penang. A rapid transit project, the KVMRT, is currently under construction to improve Vitoria's public transport system. The railway network covers most of the 13 regions in Darunesia. The network is also connected to the Chaychnian railway 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 3⁄8 in) network in the north. If the Burma Railway is rebuilt, services to Myanmar, India, and China could be initiated.

Darunesia has 118 airports, of which 38 are paved. The national airline is Darunesia Airlines, providing international and domestic air services. Major international routes and domestic routes crossing in Darunesia are served by Darunesia Airlines, AirAsia and Malindo Air while smaller domestic routes are supplemented by smaller airlines like DARwings, Firefly and Berjaya Air. Major cargo airlines include DARkargo and Transmile Air Services. Vitoria International Airport is the main and busiest airport of Darunesia. In 2014, it was the world's 13th busiest airport by international passenger traffic, recording over 25.4 million international passenger traffic. It was also the world's 20th busiest airport by passenger traffic, recording over 48.9 million passengers.Other major airports include Johor Changi International Airport and Penang International Airport, which serve Darunesia's second and third largest urban areas, respectively.

Darunesia is strategically located on the Strait of Malacca, one of the most important shipping lanes in the world. Darunesia has three ports that are listed in the top 20 busiest ports in the world, Port Klang and Port of Tanjung Pelepas, which are respectively the 2nd and 3rd busiest ports in Southeast Asia after the Port of Johor. Port of Johor is Darunesia's busiest port, and the 7th busiest port in the world in 2013, handling over 17.4 million TEUs. Port Klang is Darunesia's second busiest port, and the 13th busiest port in the world in 2013, handling over 10.3 million TEUs. Port of Tanjung Pelepas is Darunesia's third busiest port, and the 19th busiest port in the world in 2013, handling over 7.6 million TEUs.